As caravans and pack trains crossed territories, brokers arranged trades and money exchanges.
Olive branch or peace pipe showed peaceful intentions.
He lived 1461 to 1536 and was international lawyer.
He lived 1483 to 1546, was Dominican, and was at Salamanca. He wrote about natural and international law, especially as applied to American native peoples.
Alciatus lived 1492 to 1550, wrote about international law, and founded Bourges University. He tried to discover pure Roman law from commentaries and added good other laws.
He lived 1520 to 1590 and helped establish Continental law and international law, using original sources. He studied law at Bourges University, was Alciati's pupil's student, and studied law's relations to history and literature.
He lived 1500 to 1560, was international lawyer, was Alciatus' pupil, and founded Louvain University.
He lived 1557 to 1624 and was international lawyer.
He lived 1527 to 1591, was international lawyer, and studied law at Bourges University.
He lived 1552 to 1608 and emphasized that contemporary situations required new international law rules.
His ideas came into use in approximately 1900.
He established peace-treaty rules, neutrality rules, and war rules. He established justifications for war, especially self-defense.
Licenses for reprisal against another nation's vessels {letters of marque} are unlawful, because they lead to piracy. Travelers in peacetime have freedom of passage, especially over seas.
Diplomatic personnel have immunity from prosecution, have right of passage, and have right of property and person protection. Rulers cannot reject embassies but can return particular ambassadors. All nations, no matter what governmental system or ruler, are in society of nations.
Epistemology
Rights and laws based on reason are true for all people at all times.
He lived 1583 to 1645 and was the "father of international law". He described current international law, basing his ideas on natural law, reason, and Roman ius gentium.
Ethics
Moral precepts are true even without God, are rational, and are social.
Law
International law depends on natural law, customs, and agreements. Natural law comes from man's social nature and needs, is absolute, is power and authority basis, and protects property and life rights. Law gives rights and justice by the ruled's consent.
Politics
People have natural rights, which government should guarantee. State is social contract. Aristocratic republic is best.
He lived 1632 to 1694.
Law
Laws define what to do or not do and prescribe punishment. Travelers have freedom of seas, except in territorial waters.
Politics
Man's natural duties, defined by natural law, are examples of state duties. Authority has legitimate power to limit freedom and punish people to make people secure or better. Authority can also be legitimate if people have consented. People have obligation to obey superiors. Social relations aid individual self-preservation. Theocracy is not good. Taking booty is sovereign's right, and it is then his property. Treaty or danger {necessity} can allow nations to prevent actions they normally allow.
He lived 1655 to 1728, was international lawyer, and helped found natural law.
He lived 1673 to 1743 and emphasized actual law practice. He established neutral country protections, blockade rules, and contraband rules. One cannon shot, three miles, is territorial-waters limit. High seas are free to all. Ambassadors should have full protection. War declarations are unnecessary.
He lived 1714 to 1767, was international lawyer, and believed in natural law. Nations are like moral persons, so ethics is a consideration in law.
Act called on Europe to restore Louis XVI of France.
He lived 1779 to 1861, was international lawyer, and started Historical School [1810 to 1842]. He emphasized Roman law and customs as the law basis. He first recreated classical law, contrasted Roman law to natural law, and tried to show how law had evolved.
He lived 1818 to 1892 and was an international lawyer and Roman-law scholar.
He lived 1817 to 1903 and was an international lawyer and Roman-law historian.
Act was first international law code. It described naval war rules, ended privateering, established contraband rules, and established blockade rules. Most sea-faring nations signed.
Act established rules for wounded soldiers. Nine states signed.
Act established rules about explosive or inflammable projectiles.
Conference used war rules of Francis Leiber for USA Civil War and proclaimed Declaration of Brussels. It prohibited pillage and bombardment of open towns and established occupation rules and prisoner-treatment rules. Britain did not ratify it, and it failed. Later, nations adopted its ideas.
Conference revised war rules by the Hague Declarations.
Act established blockade, contraband, and naval war rules, but England did not ratify it.
League of Nations established court.
Open to all nations, it prohibited war and forced peaceful settlements to be sought.
Nuremburg Nazi-war-criminal trials changed international law. They used laws passed after the acts {ex post facto law} {nullum crimen nulla poena sine lege}. They had no precedents. Aggressive war is crime. Aggressive-nation leaders are responsible for war, because people have duties to conscience that are higher than duties to state.
United Nations declared it.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225